Suicide & self-harm monitoring
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Supporting people who experience socioeconomic disadvantage: Deaths by suicide among Centrelink income support recipients
Socioeconomic disadvantage may be broadly defined in terms of people’s access to material and social resources and their ability to participate in society (ABS 2023b). Socioeconomic disadvantage experienced by individuals is complex and challenging to capture completely. The Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) Index of Relative Socio-Economic Disadvantage estimates the level of socioeconomic disadvantage for a geographic area, rather than for individuals. This index shows a strong association between the socioeconomic status of geographic areas and deaths by suicide. Previous person level analysis undertaken by the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW) used a range of indicators of socioeconomic disadvantage such as income, education, and employment status. The results of this analysis show that lower income, lower levels of educational attainment, and being unemployed or not participating in the labour force, are each associated with a higher risk of death by suicide.
‘People experiencing socioeconomic disadvantage’ are identified as a priority population under the National Mental Health and Suicide Prevention Agreement (the Agreement) (Commonwealth of Australia 2022). Under the Agreement, Commonwealth and State and Territory governments have a shared responsibility to support priority populations who may be at higher risk of mental health concerns and suicide due to vulnerability caused by social, economic, and environmental circumstances.
Receipt of Centrelink income support payments, while not a comprehensive measure, can be an indicator of socioeconomic disadvantage. Eligibility requirements mean that people receiving these payments need financial support. It is important, though, to acknowledge the diversity of experiences and circumstances among people who receive income support payments. Not all people experiencing socioeconomic disadvantage receive the Centrelink income support payments included within this release.
This release provides national counts and rates of deaths by suicide among people who received selected Centrelink income support payments. This information can improve understanding of suicide among people receiving these payments, highlight where further investigation and evidence are needed, and provide insights into how these deaths may be prevented. The analysis undertaken for this release does not investigate and nor does it provide evidence of a causal relationship between receiving an income support payment and suicide.
Selected Centrelink income support payments
Centrelink is a Services Australia program that delivers social security payments and services to Australians.
This release includes data for people who received the following income support payments:
- Age Pension - for eligible older Australians.
- Disability Support Pension - for people who have a physical, intellectual or psychiatric condition that is likely to persist for more than 2 years and stop them from working.
- Carer Payment - for carers who give constant care to someone with disability or a medical condition, or an adult who is frail aged.
- Parenting payments - Parenting Payment Single and Parenting Payment Partnered are the main income support payments for people who are the main carer of a young child.
- Student payments - Youth Allowance for students and apprentices, Austudy, and ABSTUDY. Youth Allowance is for full-time students and apprentices, 15 to 24 years of age. Austudy is for full-time students and apprentices 25 years and older. ABSTUDY is for First Nations students or apprentices, 16 to 24 years of age.
- Unemployment payments - Youth Allowance for job seekers and JobSeeker (formally NewStart). These payments are for people who are looking for work (or are sick or injured and cannot do their usual work or study). Youth Allowance for job seekers is for people aged 21 and younger. JobSeeker is for people aged between 22 years and the Age Pension age.
Youth Allowance for job seekers and JobSeeker (formally NewStart) payments are collectively referred to as ‘unemployment payments’ (for brevity). Note that some people receiving these payments (retirees, people working insufficient hours or exempt from the mutual obligation to be looking for work) would not be defined as unemployed according to the ABS Labour Force Survey definition; see Employment and unemployment.
To be eligible, for each of these income support payments, people need to meet income and assets tests.
Further information about these payments can be found on the Services Australia Centrelink website.
Data on suicide among Centrelink income support recipients
Data presented in this release are drawn from an analysis of datasets available in the Person-Level Integrated Data Asset (PLIDA) (ABS n.d.). The key PLIDA datasets analysed for this release are the Causes of Death (ABS 2023a) dataset and the Data On Multiple Individual Occurrences (DOMINO) (DSS 2023) dataset. DOMINO is a longitudinal dataset of income support payments. Using the ABS person level linkage spine to link the PLIDA Causes of Death and DOMINO datasets enabled an investigation of deaths by suicide among people who received income support payments at any time between 2011 and 2021. More information about the PLIDA is available on the ABS website.
For more information about analysis of datasets for this release see Methods.
Suicide among people who received an income support payment between 2011 and 2021
The interactive data visualisation below displays deaths by suicide, between 2011 and 2021, among those who received a selected income support payment. Individuals were identified as dying by suicide while receiving an income support payment, if they died in the same calendar year that they received the payment (first method).
Comparing across income support payments, the data show:
- For all age groups between 16 and 65 years, rates of death by suicide are highest among those who received the Disability Support Pension.
- For all age groups between 16 and 45 years, the number of suicide deaths is highest among people who received unemployment payments. However, for those aged between 46 and 65 years, the highest number of deaths is among people who received the Disability Support Pension.
Age-specific rates and numbers of suicide among those who received income support payments between 2011 and 2021
The visualisation illustrates suicide among those who received income support. Individuals were identified as dying by suicide while receiving an income support payment, if they died in the same calendar year that they received the payment. Data from 2011 to 2021 are used and can shown as numbers or age-specific rates by age group and gender.
Please note: Error bars indicate the precision of an age-specific rate. The narrower the error bars, the more precise our estimate of the age-specific rate.
The next interactive data visualisation displays death by suicide for each year between 2011 and 2021, among those who received a selected income support payment. Individuals were identified as dying by suicide while receiving an income support payment, if they died in the same calendar year that they received the payment (first method). Deaths by suicide among the whole Australian population are provided as the comparison. Data shown for deaths registered in 2021 is preliminary and subject to revision. Historically, data for deaths by suicide are revised upwards as more information from coronial processes becomes available.
Looking across time and comparing income support recipients and the whole Australian comparison populations, the data show:
- Among those who received the Age Pension, Carer Payment, parenting payments, and student payments, age-standardised rates of death by suicide have remained relatively stable. Overall, the age-standardised suicide rates for these groups are not substantially different to those of their Australian comparison populations.
- Overall, age-standardised rates of death by suicide among those who received the Disability Support Pension have remained stable, though higher than rates among their Australian comparison population.
- During 2019, the most recent pre COVID-19 pandemic year, the age-standardised suicide rate among Disability Support Pension recipients was 3.6 times that of their Australian comparison population. During the same year, Disability Support Pension recipients accounted for 14.5% of all suicide deaths among Australians of the same age range (16–75 years).
- Age-standardised suicide rates among males who received unemployment payments, appear to have increased over the study period and was higher in 2017 than in 2013.
- Age-standardised suicide rates among males and females who received unemployment payments are higher than rates among their Australian comparison populations.
- During 2019, the most recent pre COVID-19 pandemic year, the age-standardised suicide rate among males who received unemployment payments was 2.8 times that of the male Australian population comparison. For females, the 2019 age-standardised suicide rate among those who received unemployment payments was 3.3 times that of the Australian female comparison population. During the same year, unemployment recipients accounted for approximately 20% of all suicide deaths among Australian males and females (across the same age range 15–66 years).
- Age-standardised suicide rates among males and females who received unemployment payments declined markedly between 2019 and 2020. Among persons receiving unemployment payments, the age-standardised suicide rate reduced by 37.4% between 2019 and 2020.
The reasons for this reduction in rate of death by suicide among those receiving unemployment payments cannot be determined from the analysis undertaken. However, the COVID-19 pandemic and Australian Governments’ responses to the pandemic resulted in substantially more people receiving unemployment payments, many of whom would not have received unemployment payments if not for the pandemic (Klapdor 2020). Previous AIHW analysis undertaken found that receiving unemployment payments for longer periods of time is associated with increased risk of death by suicide. Those who received income support payments for a relatively short period during the Australian Government’s response to the pandemic may be less vulnerable compared to longer-term unemployment payment recipients. The dollar amount paid to unemployment payment recipients was also substantially increased.
Annual numbers, crude rates, and age-standardised rates of suicide among those who received income support payments between 2011 and 2021
The visualisation illustrates suicide among those who received income support. Individuals were identified as dying by suicide while receiving an income support payment, if they died in the same calendar year that they received the payment. Annual numbers, crude rates, and age-standardised rates of data from 2011 to 2021 can be shown by payment type and by gender.
The number and rate of suicide deaths among the Australian comparison population presented in this release differ from those published on the Deaths by suicide over time webpage. This is because the AIHW sourced Australian comparison population suicide data for this release from the PLIDA. A small number of suicide deaths could not be linked between the PLIDA datasets.
Suicide among people who received an unemployment payment at any time in the preceding 12 months
The final interactive data visualisation below displays annual numbers and rates of deaths by suicide, between 2012 and 2021, among people who received an unemployment payment at any time in the preceding 12 months. (second method).
For example, the numerator for the annual 2012 rate in the visualisation below includes all people who died by suicide during 2012 and received an unemployment payment within 12 months of their death. The denominator includes all people who received an unemployment payment within 12 months of any day during 2012. These rates are provided per 100,000 person years. Person years account for the length of time each person was alive during the year of interest (2012 in the example directly above), and within 12 months of having received an unemployment payment, including those who died from another cause or did not die
The comparison suicide rates are for an age and gender matched sample of the Australian population who died by suicide and did not receive an unemployment payment in the preceding 12 months. Data shown for deaths registered in 2021 are preliminary and subject to revision.
Looking across time and comparing those who did and did not receive an unemployment payment in the preceding 12 months, the data show:
- People who received an unemployment payment in the preceding 12 months have higher rates of suicide compared to those who did not receive an unemployment payment in the preceding 12 months.
During 2019, the most recent pre COVID-19 pandemic year, the suicide rate for those who received an unemployment payment was 4.5 times that of those who did not receive an unemployment payment in the preceding 12 months.
- Suicide rates among those who received an unemployment payment in the preceding 12 months, appears to have increased across the study period and was higher in 2017 than in 2013.
- The suicide rate among those who received an unemployment payment, in the preceding 12 months, declined markedly between 2019 and 2020. Even so, the number of suicide deaths for this group increased between 2019 and 2020 (from 651 to 752 deaths). As previously noted, the reasons for this reduction cannot be determined from the analysis undertaken. However, the COVID-19 pandemic and Australian Governments’ responses to the pandemic are likely factors.
Overall, patterns in the data for suicide rates among people who received an unemployment payment at any time within the calendar year is similar to those seen for rates of suicide among those who received an unemployment payment at any time during the preceding 12 months.
Age and gender matched rates of death by suicide among those who received and did not receive an unemployment payment (between 2011 and 2021) at any time in the preceding 12 months
The visualisation illustrates death by suicide among those who received and did not receive an unemployment payment at any time in the preceding 12 months. It shows the age and gender matched rates for data 2011 to 2021.
Limitations and important data interpretation considerations
This release provides counts and rates of death by suicide among those who received selected income support payments at any time between 2011 and 2021. Receipt of income support payments is an indicator of socioeconomic disadvantage, but it is not a comprehensive measure of socioeconomic disadvantage. The study does not investigate and nor does it provide evidence of a causal relationship between receiving an income support payment and death by suicide.
Data sources in more detail
The Causes of Deaths data analysed was preliminary for 2021, revised for 2020 and finalised for 2011 to 2019 registered data. Throughout this release data are presented by year of death occurrence. More information about the registrations and reviews processes for the causes of deaths data is provided within the Australian Bureau of Statistics Causes of Death, Australian methodology publication. ICD codes used to identify a suicide death were X60-X84, Y87.0.
DOMINO was used to identify individuals who had received the selected income support payments. Specially, the DOMINO DET_BEN table was used for this analysis. The DET_BEN table includes both current and suspended payment periods. During a suspended payment period, an individual does not receive payment because their eligibility is pending. This could be for a range of reasons including, not submitting necessary documentation in a timely manner, not meeting a mutual obligation, and exceeding the income test. Data for both current and suspended payment periods was included in the analysis. The Age Pension eligibility age varies from 64 years of age to 66 years and 6 months of age, across the study period (2011–2021).
For those who died during the study period (2011-2021), dates of birth and death were obtained from the Causes of Deaths data. The PLIDA combined demographics dataset was used to identify dates of birth for those who were alive during the whole of the study period (2011–2021). The combined demographics dataset was also used to define gender. Due to data quality and privacy concerns relating to small numbers, gender is included in the analysis as a binary variable with values male and female. As such, we are only able to report results for people represented in the data as only male or only female, and not for transgender or gender diverse people.
Identifying suicide deaths among income support recipients
Suicide deaths among people who received income support payments were identified using two different methods.
First method:
For the first method, individuals were identified if they died by suicide and received a selected income support payment at any time within the calendar.
- Where individuals received more than one of the selected income support payments in their calendar year of death, these individuals appear against each of these income support payment types. 2.9% of people who died by suicide and were in receipt of income support payments in their calendar year of death received more than one type of income support payment in their calendar year of death.
- Counts, age-specific rates, and directly age-standardised rates (and associated crude rates) of suicide are provided using this method.
Age-specific rates:
- For the age-specific rates, the same ten-year age groups are applied to all payment types resulting in some small counts. Cell sizes of less than 10 cannot be outputted from the ABS Datalab environment that holds the PLIDA. These deaths and sequentially suppressed deaths are not reported.
- Whole of population comparison rates were calculated, using mid-year Estimate Resident Populations as the denominators.
- Exact Poisson 95% confidence intervals were calculated.
Age-standardised rates:
- Income support payments are designed for different life stages and ages. Consequently, different segments of the Australian Age-standard were used to directly age-standardise suicide rates among recipients of the different selected payment types.
- Comparison rates provided are for the whole Australian population in the same age range as the income support recipients for each payment type. Separate comparison rates were calculated for each type of income support. The age ranges chosen for each payment type were data driven. Five-year age-groups were used where possible and 10-year age groups were used where necessary when undertaking age-standardisation. To ensure the robustness of rates produced, cell sizes of zero deaths within an age group were not included and a minimum of 20 deaths across all age groups was required. Subsequently, a small number of deaths (falling outside of the stated age range included within the standardisation) were not included within the age-standardised rates calculated. Data for deaths among income support recipients and their matched whole Australian population comparison were treated identically.
- Whole of population comparison rates were calculated, using mid-year Estimate Resident Populations as the denominators.
- Due to smaller cell sizes, age-standardised rates are not provided by gender for some payment types.
- 95% confidence intervals based on the gamma distribution were calculated using the STATA DISTRATE package. No confidence intervals are provided for associated crude rates.
Second method:
For the second method, individuals were identified if they died by suicide and received an unemployment payment at any time within the preceding 365 days (or approximately 12 months).
- For the calculation of annual rates, individuals counted within numerators and denominators were identified daily. Individuals were included in the daily study population rate numerator if they died by suicide on the day and received an unemployment payment at any time within the preceding 365 days. Individuals were included in the daily study population denominator if they were alive or died on the day and received an unemployment payment at any time within the preceding 365 days. Individuals included in daily study population numerators and denominators were then summed across each calendar year to produce annual rates. Rates are provided per 100,000 person years because the number of days each person was included within the denominator was considered. For example, one individual may have been included within the denominator for every day of the calendar year, while another person was included within the study population denominator only some of the days within the year. People were not included in the denominator every day across the calendar year if they died during the year or if the time between the day of interest and their most recent receipt of unemployment payments became greater than 365 days.
- Age and gender matched comparison rates were calculated based on a sample of the whole comparison population, drawn using random stratified sampling. Six individuals from the whole comparison population (those who did not receive income support payments) were matched with each individual of the same age and gender in the study population (those who received unemployment payments). Matched sampling was conducted separately for each year of the study period. For the purposes of sampling, the study population was defined as those who were alive for at least one day during the year and received an unemployment payment in the preceding 365 days. The comparison population was defined as all people within the PLIDA combined demographics file, excluding those included in the study population on every day of the year.
- Exact Poisson 95% confidence intervals were calculated.
For both methods, no minimum duration of income support payment receipt was required. For both methods age at mid-year (regardless of death status) was used.
ABS (Australian Bureau of Statistics) (2023a) Causes of death, Australia, ABS, accessed 20 November 2023.
ABS (2023b) Socio-Economic Indexes for Areas (SEIFA): Technical Paper, ABS, accessed 18 April 2024.
ABS (n.d.) Person Level Integrated Data Asset (PLIDA), ABS, accessed 16 April 2024.
The Commonwealth of Australia (2022) The National Mental Health and Suicide Prevention Agreement, The Federal Financial Relations, accessed 20 November 2023.
The Department of Social Services (DSS) (2023) DSS Metadata, DSS, accessed 18 April 2024.
Klapdor, M (2020) Changes to the COVID-19 social security measures: a brief assessment, Parliament of Australia, accessed 20 November 2023.